Saturday, October 8, 2011

Stamford Raffles


Stamford Raffles

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles
Born6 July 1781
Off the Coast of Jamaica
Died5 July 1826 (aged 44)
London, England
OccupationBritish Colonial Official
Known forFounding Singapore
ReligionAnglican
Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley RafflesFRS(6 July 1781 – 5 July 1826) was a British statesman, best known for his founding of the city of Singapore (now the city-state of the Republic of Singapore). He is often described as the "Father of Singapore". He was also heavily involved in the conquest of the Indonesian island of Java from Dutch and French military forces during the Napoleonic Wars and contributed to the expansion of the British Empire. He was also an amateur writer and wrote a book entitled History of Java (1817).

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[edit]Early life

Raffles was born on the ship Ann off the coast of Port Morant, Jamaica, to Captain Benjamin Raffles (d. June 1797) and Anne Raffles (née Lyde). His father was a Yorkshireman who had a burgeoning family and little luck in the West Indies trade during the American Revolution, sending the family into debt. The little money the family had went into schooling Raffles. He attended a boarding school. In1795, at the age of 14, Raffles started working as a clerk in London for the British East India Company, the trading company that shaped many of Britain's overseas conquests. In 1805 he was sent to what is now Penang in the country of Malaysia, then called the Prince of Wales Island, starting his long association with Southeast Asia. He started with a post under the Honourable Philip Dundas, the Governor of Penang.
He was appointed assistant secretary to the new Governor of Penang in 1805 and married Olivia Mariamne Fancourt, a widow who was formerly married to Jacob Cassivelaun Fancourt, an assistant surgeon in Madras who had died in 1800. At this time he also made the acquaintance of Thomas Otho Travers, who would accompany him for the next twenty years.
His knowledge of the Malay language as well as his wit and ability, gained him favour with Lord MintoGovernor-General of India, and he was sent to Malacca. Then, in 1811, after the invasion and annexation of the Kingdom of Holland by France during Napoleon's war, Raffles had no choice but to leave the country. He mounted a military expedition against the Dutch and French in JavaIndonesia. The war was swiftly conducted by Admiral Robert Stopford, General Wetherhall, and Colonel Gillespie, who led a well-organized army against an army of mostly French conscripts with little proper leadership. The previous Dutch governor, Herman Willem Daendels, had built a well-defended fortification at Meester Cornelis (now Jatinegara), and at the time, the governor, Jan Willem Janssens (who, coincidentally, surrendered to the British at the Cape Colony), mounted a brave but ultimately futile defence at the fortress. The British, led by Colonel Gillespie, stormed the fort and captured it within three hours. Janssens attempted to escape inland but was captured. The British invasion of Java took a total of forty-five days, during which Raffles was appointed the Lieutenant-Governor by Lord Minto before hostilities formally ceased. He took his residence at Buitenzorg and despite having a small subset of Britons as his senior staff, he kept many of the Dutch civil servants in the governmental structure. He also negotiated peace and mounted some small military expeditions against local princes to subjugate them to British rule, as well as a takeover of Bangka Island to set up a permanent British presence in the area in the case of the return of Java to Dutch rule after the end of the War of the Sixth Coalition in Europe.
The memorial to Olivia Mariamne, Raffles' first wife, erected by him along the Kanarielaan in the National Botanical Gardens (now the Bogor Botanical Gardens) that he founded in Buitenzorg (now Bogor), West Java
During his governorship, Raffles introduced partial self-government, stopped the slave trade, became an early opponent of the Opium trade by placing strict limitations upon its importation, much to the dismay of Calcutta, led an expedition to rediscover and restore Borobudur and other ancient monuments, and replaced the Dutch forced agriculture system with a land tenure system of land management, probably influenced by the earlier writings of Dirk van Hogendorp (1761–1822). He also changed the Dutch colonies to the British system of driving on the left,[citation needed] which is why Indonesia drives on the left today.
Under the harsh conditions of the island, Olivia died on 26 November 1814, an event that devastated Raffles. In 1815, he left again for England after the island of Java was returned to control of the Netherlands following the Napoleonic Wars, under the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, but not before he was officially replaced by John Fendall on account of the poor financial performance of the colony during his administration, as deemed by the successors of Lord Minto in Calcutta. He sailed to England in early 1816 to clear his name, and en route, visited Napoleon, who was in exile at St. Helena, but found him unpleasant and unimpressive.

[edit]Interlude in England

In 1817, Raffles wrote and published a book entitled History of Java, describing the history of the island from ancient times. In 1817 he was knighted by the prince regent, whose daughter, Princess Charlotte, was particularly close to him. At the publication of the book, he also stopped using the name "Thomas", preferring to use his middle name, "Stamford", possibly to avoid confusion amongst his associates with Sir Thomas Sevestre or his cousin who bore the same name. On February 22, he married his second wife, Sophia Hull.
He was appointed as the Governor-General of Bencoolen (now Bengkulu) on 15 October 1817, and set sail to take the post with his new wife.

[edit]Bencoolen (Bengkulu) and Malaya

Raffles in 1817
Raffles arrived in Bencoolen (Bengkulu) on 19 March 1818. Despite the prestige connected with the title, Bencoolen was a colonial backwater whose only real export was pepper and only the murder of a previous Resident, Thomas Parr, gained it any attention back home in Britain. Raffles found the place wrecked, and set about reforms immediately, mostly similar to what he had done in Java - abolishing slavery and limiting cockfighting and such games. To replace the slaves, he used a contingent of convicts, already sent to him from India. It is at this point when he realized the importance of a British presence that both challenged the Dutch hegemony in the area and could remain consistently profitable, unlike Bencoolen or Batavia. However, the strategic importance of poorly-maintained but well-positioned British possessions such as Penang or Bencoolen made it impossible for the British to abandon such unprofitable colonies in such close proximity to the Dutch in Java. The competition in the area, between Raffles and the aggressive Dutch de jureGovernor, Elout, certainly led at least in part to the later Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Raffles looked into alternatives in the area - namely Bangka, which had been ceded to the Dutch after its conquest by the British during its occupation of Java.
Bintan was also under consideration. Despite the fact that Warren Hastings overlooked the island before settling upon Penang in 1786, the Riau Archipelago was an attractive choice just to the south of the Malay Peninsula, for its proximity to Malacca. In his correspondences with Calcutta, Raffles also emphasized the need to establish a certain amount of influence with the native chiefs, which had greatly waned since the return of the Dutch. Raffles sent Thomas Travers as an ambassador to the Dutch, to possibly negotiate an expansion of British economic interests. When this failed, and when Raffles' own expeditions into his new dominion found only treacherous terrain and few exportable goods, his desire to establish a better British presence was cemented.
However, the Anglo-Dutch Convention of 1814 was not completely clear, especially on the issue of certain possessions such as Padang. The Convention of 1814 only returned Dutch territory that was held before 1803, which did not include Padang. Raffles asserted the British claim personally, leading a small expedition to the Sultanate of Minangkabau. Yet, as Raffles confirmed with the sultan regarding the absolute British influence of the area, he realized that the local rulers had only limited power over the well-cultivated and civilized country, and the treaty was largely symbolic and had little actual force.

[edit]Founding of Singapore

Statue of Sir Stamford Raffles in Singapore, based on the original by Thomas Woolner
Meanwhile, Major William Farquhar, the British Resident of Malacca, had been attempting to negotiate commercial treaties with the local chiefs of the Riau Archipelago, especially with the heads of the Sultanate of Johore. Due to the death and subsequent turmoil of the sultanate at the time of Farquhar's arrival, Farquhar was compelled to sign the treaty not with the official head of the sultanate, but rather, the Raja Muda (Regent or Crown Prince) of Riau. Noting it as a success and reporting it as such back to Raffles, Raffles sailed to Malacca in late 1818 to personally secure a British presence in the Riau area, especiallySingapura, which was favoured by him both through the readings of Malayan histories and by Farquhar's explorations.
Despite Lord Hastings' less-than-stellar opinion of Raffles before (which had necessitated his trip to England to clear his name at the end of his tenure as Governor-General of Java), the now well-connected and successful Raffles was able to secure the permission to set up a settlement where in Malaysian history the name Lion City was applied and was in a strategically advantageous position. However, he was not to provoke the Dutch, and his actions were officially disavowed. Despite the best efforts in London by authorities such as the Viscount Castlereagh to quell Dutch fears and the continuing efforts to reach an agreement between the nations that eventually became the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of London of 1824, as well as to send instructions to Raffles to undertake far less intrusive actions, the distance between the Far East and Europe had meant that the orders had no chance of reaching Raffles in time for his venture to begin.

[edit]Singapore

[edit]Establishment

After a brief survey of the Karimun Islands, on 29 January 1819, he established a post at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula. It was established that there was no Dutch presence on the island of Singapore. Johore also no longer had any control of the area, so contact was made with the local Temenggong, or Raja. The contacts were friendly and Raffles, knowledgeable about the muddled political situation, took advantage to provide a rudimentary treaty between the nominal chiefs of the area that called for the exclusivity of trade and the British protection of the area. Members of Raffles' party surveyed the island and proceeded to request the presence of the sultan, or whoever at the time had supreme nominal power, to sign a formal treaty, while Major Farquhar was ordered to do the same in Rhio. A few days later, the formal treaty was signed by a man who claimed to be the "lawful sovereign of the whole of territories extending from Lingga and Johor to Mount Muar". This man was Hussein Shah of Johor, who, although having had no previous contact with the British, had certainly heard of the might of the British navy and was in no position to argue against the terms. However, Raffles was able to charm the man and to reassure him that the Dutch posed no threat in the area. Hussein Shah had been the crown Prince of Johor, but while he was away in Pahang to get married, his father died and his younger brother was made sultan, supported by some of the court officials and the Dutch. To circumvent the situation of having to negotiate with a sultan influenced by the Dutch, Raffles decided to recognise, on behalf of the British Crown, Hussein Shah as being the rightful ruler of Johor. Farquhar's attempt to establish a more favorable treaty in Rhio was met with greater challenge, as the Dutch were present and made for a rather awkward position. The Dutch were alarmed and sent a small contingent to the island. Despite a covert offer of subterfuge against the Dutch offered by the Raja of Rhio, Farquhar returned and an official protest was sent by the Raja to Java regarding the matter.
Raffles declared the foundation of what was to become modern Singapore on 6 February, securing the transfer of control of the island to the East India Company. Much pomp and ceremony was done, and the official treaty was read aloud in languages representing all nations present, as well as the Malay and Chinese inhabitants. Hussien Shah was paid $5,000 a year while the local Temenggong received $3,000 a year, both massive sums at the time, equivalent to several hundred thousand dollars now[citation needed]. Farquhar was officially named the Resident of Singapore as Raffles was named as "Agent to the Most Noble the Governor-General with the States of Rhio, Lingin and Johor". Although ownership of the post was to be exclusively British, explicit orders were given to Farquhar to maintain free passage of ships through the Strait of Singapore and a small military presence was established alongside the trading post. After issuing orders to Farquhar and the remaining Europeans, Raffles left the next day, 7 February 1819.

[edit]Achin, and the early conflict/crisis with the Dutch

Raffles also planned to start a British presence in Achin, at the northern tip of Sumatra. As soon as he left, the Raja of Rhio sent letters to the Dutch, claiming innocence and a British encroachment. The Dutch in Malacca acted at once, and ordered that no Malays could go to Singapore. Raffles' bold claim of Singapore created a curious geographic situation where although Penang was clearly closer distance-wise to Singapore, Raffles, in his capacity as the Governor-General of Bencoolen, was in control. This undoubtedly irked the authorities in Penang to the point where they refused to send any sepoys to Singapore to complete the garrison. Official Dutch complaints came before the end of the month, and Raffles attempted to appease the situation by instructing Farquhar to not interfere with the politics of surrounding islands. Despite numerous threats and serious considerations by the Dutch Governor-General in Java, the Dutch did not take any military action.
The muddled political situation in Johore and Rhio also created a certain uneasiness and instability for the two nations.Tengku Long was claimed to be a pretender to the throne, and, since the succession laws in the Malay sultanates were not clear cut, the treaties signed between native rulers and the European powers always seemed to be on the verge of being invalidated, especially if a sultan is deposed by one of his siblings or other pretenders.
Nevertheless, amidst the uncertainty and intrigue, Raffles landed in Achin on 14 March 1819, with the begrudging help of Penang. Once again, it seems that multiple people were in power, but none wanted to formally deal with the British. The hostile atmosphere created allowed for Raffles to cancel the only meeting he was able to arrange, with Panglima Polim, a powerful divisional chief, fearing treachery. As the influential merchant John Palmer, Raffles, and fellow commissioner John Monckton Coombs of Penang sat offshore, waiting for a response, Calcutta debated whether to reinforce Singapore or not. Evacuation plans were made, but the Dutch never acted and finally Lord Hastings prompted Colonel Bannerman, the Governor of Penang, to send funds to reinforce Singapore.
Raffles finally was able to convince his fellow commissioners to sign a treaty with Jauhar al-Alam Shah, the ruler of Achin, which placed a British resident as well as the exclusivity of trade. By the time Raffles returned to Singapore, on 31 May, much of the immediate crisis that the establishment of the colony had caused in both Penang and Calcutta had passed. By then, the initial five-hundred villagers had grown to become five-thousand merchants, soldiers, and administrators on the island. Raffles was determined to both destroy the Dutch monopoly in the area, and create a gateway to the trade with China and Japan, the latter of which he attempted and failed to reach while governing Java.

[edit]First year of Singapore

While in Singapore, Raffles established schools and churches in the native languages. He allowed missionaries and local businesses to flourish. Certain colonial aspects remained: a European town was quickly built to segregate the population, separated by a river; carriage roads were built and cantonments constructed for the soldiers. Otherwise, however, no duties were imposed and confident that Farquhar would follow his instructions well, he sailed for Bencoolen once again on 28 June.

[edit]Bencoolen, once again

Raffles was still the Governor-General of Bencoolen and having returned to it after the settling of Singapore, Raffles started more reforms that were, by now, almost trademarks of his reign upon colonies. Forced labour was abolished when he first arrived, and he declared Bencoolen a free port as well. Currency was regulated and as he had an excess of out-of-work civil servants, formed committees to advise him in the running of the colony. However, Bencoolen was not as self-sufficient as Singapore. The area was poor and disease-ridden, and the first reports from the committees reflected very poorly upon the condition of the colony. Unlike the salutary neglect Raffles granted upon Singapore, he slowed the European-inspired reforms and emphasized on the cultivation of whatever land that was available. Native authorities were given power in their respective districts and were answerable only to the Governor-General. The slave-debtor system was brought in in exchange instead of the old slavery system that Raffles abolished in Java, Borneo, and initially in Bencoolen. Slave-debtors were registered, and educational reforms started to focus on the children instead of the entire population. Raffles was looking into a long-term plan for a slow reform of Bencoolen.
Unlike many other European colonizers, Raffles did not impose upon the colonized the language, culture, or other aspects of the colonizer. In addition to preserving the artifactsfauna, and flora of his colonies, he also allowed religious freedom in his colonies, especially important as the Malay states were largely Muslim. However, Christian schools were started by missionaries in all of his colonies.

[edit]Consolidation of the Eastern Isles

The death of Colonel Bannerman of Penang in October 1819 brought upon a new opportunity for Raffles to expand his power to also include the other minor British factories and outposts from Sumatra to Cochin China. He sailed to Calcutta and as Lord Hastings sought to consolidate all of the small British possessions in the East Indies. During his sojourn, he had the opportunity to argue for free trade and the protection of the private enterprise. Education and the retention of small British outposts were also discussed.
The Dutch claim on the Sultanate of Johore and hence, Rhio, and the diplomatic exchanges between Baron Godert van der Capellen and Calcutta continued throughout this time. The legitimacy of the British treaties were also questioned once again, but finally, as Singapore grew at an exponential rate, the Dutch gave up their claim on the island, allowing the colony to continue as a British possession. However, the pressures put upon Calcutta ensured that no single governor of all British possessions in the Strait or on Sumatra was appointed, and Raffles, whose health was slowly ailing, returned to Bencoolen.

[edit]Administration of Bencoolen, 1820–1822

Raffles returned to Bencoolen in ill-health, but as his health improved, he continued on his quest to learn about the island which he now called home. He studied the Batak cannibals of Tapanuli and their rituals and laws regarding the consumption of human flesh, writing in detail about the transgressions that warranted such an act as well as their methods. He also noted the rise of the Sikh religion in certain parts of Sumatra.
By early 1820, Tunku Long had firmly established himself as the Sultan of Johore to the British, but the political situation in the area remains a befuddled mess, with the old sultan dying and many new ones attempting to gain either the crown or regency. As Farquhar was involving himself poorly in local politics, Raffles appointed Travers as the Resident of Singapore, replacing Farquhar. Upon his arrival, Travers found the colony a delightful smörgåsbord of different races and cultures, numbering over six thousand, and the Singapore trade was slowly overtaking the Java trade.
As in Java, Raffles collected samples of local species of plants and animals, as well as described them in his journals. He also described other local tribes and their customs, especially their religions and laws. He brought the island of Nias under British rule as well, noting its more civilized state and production of rice.
Yet, the production of food remained somewhat of a problem in Bencoolen. Raffles paid special attention to the agricultural methods of the Chinese, and wrote an introduction to the only issue of Proceedings of the Agricultural Society, in order to remedy this. His employer, the East India Company, however, had no other concerns outside of profit, and even as Raffles lived like a country gentleman and ran his colony as an estate, his expenditures in natural preservation was frowned upon. His removal was discussed in both Calcutta and London, while Castlereagh continued negotiations with the Dutch regarding the ongoing diplomatic conflicts.
Luckily, the Singapore issue had its supporters in the House, so as negotiations went on in Europe, Raffles remained largely idle in Bencoolen. The only major issue, outside of the politics of local sultans, involved the replacement of Farquhar, who decided that he had no intention of leaving his post voluntarily, causing a moment of tension between him and Travers. Raffles' request for Travers to deliver dispatches to India nullified the issue late in the year, and Farquhar remained in charge in Singapore, with its survival still in doubt for many in both India and London, who believed that it would either be handed over to the Dutch or taken violently by the Dutch at the end of Castlereagh's negotiations.
Farquhar, however, stirred up more trouble, conflicting especially with local English merchants over trivial matters of self-importance and overreaction over small infractions of white traders, for some of which he was reprimanded by Calcutta officially. Public works, commissioned by Raffles but undertaken by Farquhar, was becoming overwhelmingly expensive.
Personal tragedies also started for Raffles. His eldest son, Leopold, died during an epidemic on 4 July 1821. The oldest daughter, Charlotte, was also sick with dysentery by the end of the year, but it would be his youngest son, Stamford Marsden, who would perish first with the disease, 3 January 1822, with Charlotte to follow ten days later. For the good part of four month the couple remained devastated. The year would be eventful with the suicide of Castlereagh and the appointment ofLord Amherst as the Governor-General of India, replacing Hastings. As Raffles grew restless and depressed, he decided to visit Singapore before heading home to England. Accompanying him would be his wife Sophia and their only surviving child, Ella.

[edit]Singapore (1822–1823)

The Plan of the Town of Singapore, or more commonly known as the Jackson Plan
Raffles was pleased at the fact that Singapore had grown exponentially in such short years. The colony was a bustling hub of trade and activity. However, Farquhar's development work was deemed unsatisfactory and Raffles drew up what is now known as the Jackson Plan, and replanned the city according to recommendations of a committee headed by the colony's engineer, Phillip Jackson.
It was still a segregated plan, giving the best land to the Europeans, yet it was considered remarkably scientific for the time. It was also during the replanning and reconstruction of the town that allowed Farquhar to clash dramatically with Raffles, who now considered Farquhar unfit for the position of Resident. Raffles took direct control with a heavy hand. In 1823, Raffles instituted a code of settlement for the populace, and soon followed with laws regarding the freedom of trade. He also quickly instituted a registration system for all land, regardless of ownership, and the repossession of the land by the government if land remained unregistered. This act greatly asserted the power of the British government as it covered land previously owned by the Sultan as well. A police force and magistrate was then set up, under British principles. In a very short period of time, Raffles had turned a semi-anarchic trading post into a proper city with some semblance of order.
Repeated efforts by Raffles for Calcutta to send a replacement for Farquhar remained unanswered. As Raffles started to hint at his impending retirement, he made Johore a British protectorate, causing a protest from van der Capellen. Finally, Calcutta appointed John Crawfurd, who had followed Raffles for over twenty years, as the Resident of Singapore. CaptainWilliam Gordon MacKenzie took over Bencoolen from Raffles. In March 1823, and coincidentally, on the same day he was replaced, he received an official reprimand from London for the takeover of Nias.
With politics against him, Raffles finally turned back to the natural sciences. He gave a speech regarding the opening of a Malay college in Singapore that heavily involved his observations of his years in Southeast Asia and the importance of both the local and the European languages. Raffles personally gave $2,000 towards the effort, as the East India Company gave $4,000.
In 1823, Raffles drafted the first constitution for Singapore, which followed a fairly moralistic stance, outlawing gaming and slavery. A specific regulation in the constitution called for the multiethnic population of Singapore to remain as is, and there shall be no crimes based on race. He then went to work drafting laws, defining exactly "what" constituted a crime. Finally, on 9 July 1823, feeling that his work in establishing Singapore was finished, he boarded a ship for home, but not before a stop in Batavia to visit his old home and adversary, van der Capellen. A final stop in Bencoolen followed, and finally, a voyage home, interrupted by a harrowing experience when one of the ships caught fire off Rat Island, which claimed many of his drawings and papers.
The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 finally settled the score in the East Indies. The British gained dominance in the north, while the entirety of Sumatra became Dutch. The Malay Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent were both free of Dutch interference.
Raffles finally returned to England 22 August 1824, over a year after he left Singapore. His longest tenure in Singapore was only eight months, but he was considered the founder of Singapore nevertheless.

[edit]England and death

Upon arrival in England in poor health, both Sir Stamford and Lady Raffles convalesced in Cheltenham until September, after which he entertained distinguished guests in both London and his home. He also made plans to run for parliament, but this ambition was never realized. He moved to London to a house in Berners Street at the end of November, just in time to have a war of words in front of the Court of Directors of the EIC regarding Singapore with Farquhar, who had also arrived in London. Despite raising several severe charges against Raffles, Farquhar was ultimately unable to discredit him; he was denied a chance to be restored to Singapore, but was given a military promotion instead.
With the Singapore matter settled, Raffles turned to his other great interests - botany and zoology. Raffles was a founder (in 1825) and first president (elected April 1826) of the Zoological Society of London and the London Zoo. Meanwhile, he was not only not granted a pension, but was called to pay over twenty-two thousand pounds sterling for the losses incurred during his administrations. Raffles replied and clarified his actions, and moved to his country estate, Highwood, north London, but before the issue was resolved, he was already much too ill.
He died at Highwood House in Mill Hill, north London, a day before his forty-fifth birthday, on 5 July 1826, of apoplexy. His estate amounted to around ten thousand pounds sterling, which was paid to the Company to cover his outstanding debt. Because of his anti-slavery stance, he was refused burial inside his local parish church (St. Mary's, Hendon) by the vicar, Theodor Williams, whose family had made its money in Jamaica in the slave trade. A brass tablet was finally placed in 1887 and the actual whereabouts of his body was not known until 1914 when it was found in a vault. When the church was extended in the 1920s his tomb was incorporated into the body of the building and a square floor tablet with inscription now marks the spot.


萊佛士 從維基百科,自由的百科全書 托馬斯爵士斯坦福彬格萊萊佛士
1781年6年7月出生 關閉牙買加海岸 死1826年5年7月(44歲) 英國倫敦 職業英國殖民地官方 已知成立新加坡 宗教聖公會 托馬斯爵士斯坦福彬格萊萊佛士,FRS(1781年7月6日 - 1826年5年7月)是一個英國的政治家,最好他對新加坡的城市(現在的城市國家,新加坡共和國)成立。他常常被形容為“新加坡之父”。他還巨資參與從荷蘭和法國軍隊在拿破崙戰爭期間征服印度尼西亞爪哇島和大英帝國的擴張做出了貢獻。他也是一名業餘作家,寫了一本名為 Java的歷史(1817年)。 目錄 [隱藏] 1早期的生活 2在英國的插曲 3明古倫(明古魯)和馬來亞 4新加坡成立 5新加坡 5.1建立 5.2 Achin,並與荷蘭的早期衝突 /危機 5.3新加坡的第一年 6明古倫,再次 6.1綜合東部群島 7政府明古倫,1820年至1822年 8新加坡(1822年至1823年) 9英國和死亡 10遺產 11參考文獻和進一步閱讀 12參見 13外部鏈接 [編輯]早期的生活
萊佛士出生關閉,牙買加,莫蘭特港沿岸船舶安上尉本傑明萊佛士(卒於 1797年)6月和安妮萊佛士(娘家姓Lyde)。他的父親是曾在西印度群島貿易的一個新興的家庭和一點運氣,在美國革命期間,發送到家庭債務的約克郡。小錢家庭,走進學校教育萊佛士。他參加了一所寄宿學校。 1795年,14歲,萊佛士開始工作作為一個業務員在倫敦的英國東印度公司,貿易公司,形許多英國的海外征戰。 1805年,他被送到什麼現在是在馬來西亞檳城,然後叫威爾斯親王島,開始了他的長協與東南亞。他開始下議員,檳城總督菲利普登打士的職位。 他被任命為助理秘書長在1805年檳城新總督和奧利維亞 Mariamne Fancourt結婚,前身是寡婦結婚雅各Cassivelaun Fancourt助理外科醫生,曾在1800年去世的馬德拉斯。此時,他也做了托馬斯 Otho Travers的,誰會陪在未來的二十多年中,他的熟人。 獲得他的知識,馬來語以及他的機智和能力,他贊成與印度總督明托勳爵,他被送往馬六甲。然後,在1811年,拿破崙戰爭期間法國荷蘭王國的入侵和吞併後,萊佛士別無選擇,但離開該國。他展開對荷蘭和法國的遠征軍在印度尼西亞爪哇。由海軍上將羅伯特 Stopford,一般Wetherhall,和吉萊斯皮,上校領導的一個組織良好的軍隊,對軍隊很少有適當的領導主要是法國的義務兵,迅速進行戰爭。以前的荷蘭總督威廉赫爾曼 Daendels,建在Cornelis梅斯特(現在 Jatinegara)以及防禦工事,並在時間,總督威廉揚詹森(誰投降,巧合的是,在開普殖民地的英國),展開勇敢,但最終徒勞的防禦要塞。英國,由上校吉萊斯皮率領,衝進堡壘,並在三小時內抓獲。詹森內陸試圖逃跑,但被抓獲。英國入侵的Java了總共 45 - 5天,在此期間,來福士被任命為副總督明托勳爵前敵對行動正式停止。他在Buitenzorg他的住所,儘管有一個很小的子集作為他的高級職員英國人,他不停地在政府結構的許多荷蘭的公務員。他還通過談判實現和平,並安裝一些小的軍事遠征對地方諸侯征服英國統治,以及收購邦加島設立一個永久性的Java返回的情況下在荷蘭統治後英國在該地區的存在第六次在歐洲聯盟的戰爭結束。

奧利維亞 Mariamne,來福士“的第一任妻子,紀念館豎立他沿Kanarielaan在國家植物園(現在的茂物植物園),他在Buitenzorg(現在茂物)成立後,西爪哇 在他的總督,萊佛士介紹部分自治,停止了奴隸貿易,成為早期的鴉片貿易對手配售後,其進口的嚴格限制,到加爾各答沮喪,帶領一支探險隊,重新找回和恢復婆羅浮屠等古古蹟可能德克麵包車 Hogendorp(1761年至1822年)的早期著作的影響,土地使用權的土地管理制度,並取代荷蘭被迫農業系統。他還改變了荷蘭的殖民地,英國的制度在左邊駕駛,[需要的引證]這是在左邊的今天,為什麼印尼驅動器。 在島上的苛刻條件,奧利維亞去世於 1814年11月26日,摧毀萊佛士的事件。 1815年,他離開爪哇島為英格蘭隊後,再次被退回來控制荷蘭拿破崙戰爭後,根據 1814年英國 - 荷蘭條約“的條款,但在此之前,他是由約翰 Fendall正式取代考慮糟糕的財務表現在他的政府的殖民地,在加爾各答明托勳爵的接班人當作。他航行到英國,1816年初明確表示,他的名字,並在途中,參觀了拿破崙被流放聖赫勒拿,卻發現他不愉快的,並不起眼。 [編輯]在英國的插曲
1817年,萊佛士編寫和出版一本名為 Java的歷史,描述了從古代島的歷史。 1817年,他被授以爵位由攝政王,他的女兒夏洛特公主,尤其是靠近他。書的出版,他也停止使用“托馬斯”的名稱,更願意使用他的中間名,“斯坦福”,可能是為了避免與托馬斯爵士Sevestre或他的表弟,誰承擔相同的名稱同夥間的混亂。 2月22日,他娶了他的第二任妻子,索菲亞赫爾。 他被任命為明古倫總督秘書長(現在明古魯)1817年10月15日啟航後採取與他的新妻子。 [編輯]明古連街(明古魯)和馬來亞


萊佛士於 1817年 關於 1818年3月19日在明古連街(明古魯)萊佛士抵達。儘管標題連接的聲望,明古倫是一個殖民地的回水的唯一真正的出口胡椒和謀殺以前的駐地,托馬斯帕爾,獲得了它在英國的任何注意回家。萊佛士發現失事的地方,並立即改革設置,大多是類似他在Java - 廢除奴隸制和限制鬥雞等遊戲。要替換的奴隸,他用一個罪犯的隊伍,他已經從印度發出。這是雙方在該地區的挑戰的荷蘭霸權,並能夠保持持續盈利不像明古倫或巴達維亞,一個英國的存在的重要性,當他意識到這一點。然而,戰略的重要性,維護不善,但處於有利位置的英國屬地如檳城或明古倫不可能使英國放棄在如此接近荷蘭人在Java等無利可圖的殖民地。在該地區的萊佛士和荷蘭咄咄逼人的法理總督,Elout之間的競爭,肯定會導致至少部分是1824年以後英國和荷蘭條約。萊佛士看著進入該地區的替代品 - 即邦加,由英國征服後已被割讓給荷蘭在其佔領的Java。 民丹島也正在考慮之中。儘管沃倫黑斯廷斯的事實,忽略前解決 1786年後,檳城島上,廖內​​群島是一個有吸引力的選擇,只是為了馬來半島南部,接近馬六甲。在他的書信與加爾各答,來福士也強調,需要建立一定量的影響與本地酋長,自荷蘭的回報大大減弱。萊佛士發送荷蘭大使托馬斯 Travers的,可能談判的英國經濟利益的擴張。失敗後,到他新的Dominion來福士“自己的探險時發現只有地形之險惡和少數出口貨物,他希望建立一個更好的英國存在的鞏固。 然而,1814年英國 - 荷蘭公約“並不完全清楚,特別是對某些財產問題,如巴東。“1814年公約”只返回荷蘭領土前1803年舉行的,其中不包括巴東。萊佛士斷言英國聲稱親自掛帥,帶領一個小的遠征米南卡包蘇丹國。然而,作為證實萊佛士與蘇丹有關該地區的絕對英國的影響力,他意識到,當地統治者的權力有限,只能通過精心培育和文明的國家,條約主要是象徵性的,並沒有什麼實際受力。 [編輯]新加坡成立


在新加坡史丹福萊佛士爵士銅像,在原有基礎上由托馬斯 Woolner 同時,馬六甲海峽的英國居民,主要威廉法誇爾,曾試圖與廖內群島的當地酋長談判商業條約,特別是與柔佛蘇丹國元首,。由於法誇爾的到來的時候,蘇丹國的死亡和隨後的風暴,法誇爾被迫蘇丹國正式元首簽署條約,而是拉賈慕達廖內(攝政王儲)。注意到作為一個成功它和報告等背來福士它,萊佛士航行在後期 1818到馬六甲到個人安全的一個在廖內省領域,特別是獅城,這是由他贊成雙方通過馬來亞歷史的讀數和法誇爾的英國存在探索。 儘管主黑斯廷斯低於恆星前萊佛士(這必然要求他前往英國,以清除他的名字在他總督的Java任期結束)的意見,現在連接成功萊佛士能夠安全的權限,設立了在馬來西亞的歷史名獅城應用和高屋建瓴的結算。不過,他並沒有挑起荷蘭,和他的行動被正式否定。儘管在倫敦最好的,如子爵卡斯爾雷當局的努力平息荷蘭的恐懼和繼續努力,以達到最終成為倫敦的英國和荷蘭的1824年條約,以及各國之間的協議發送指令來福士進行侵擾程度較低的行動,遠東和歐洲之間的距離,意味著訂單沒有達到他的創業開始的時間來福士機會。 [編輯]新加坡
[編輯]建立 Karimun群島的一個簡短的調查後,在1819年1月29日,他建立在馬來半島南端的職位。它的成立,有沒有新加坡島的荷蘭存在。柔佛州也不再有任何控制該地區,因此與當地的天猛公,或拉賈聯繫。友好的接觸,來福士,了解混亂的政治局勢,利用提供的面積,要求該地區的貿易和英國的保護獨家名義首領之間的起碼的條約。萊佛士“黨的議員在接受調查的島嶼,並要求蘇丹,或者誰的存在,當時的最高額定功率,簽署正式條約,而主要法誇爾被勒令做RHIO相同。幾天後,正式條約簽署了一名男子自稱是“整個領土的合法主權延伸Lingga和柔佛麻坡山”。這名男子是柔佛,侯賽因國王,雖然沒有以前與英國接觸,肯定已經聽說過英國海軍的可能,在沒有反對的條款。然而,萊佛士魅力的人,能夠向他保證,荷蘭構成任何威脅該地區。侯賽因國王曾在柔佛王儲,但是當他在彭亨州結婚了,他父親去世,他的弟弟是蘇丹,一些法院的官員和荷蘭支持。為了規避進行談判,由荷蘭的影響蘇丹的情況,來福士決定承認,代表英國王室,柔佛的合法統治者國王侯賽因。法誇爾建立一個更有利的條約,在RHIO的企圖遭到了更大的挑戰,荷蘭是一個相當尷尬的境地。荷蘭人感到震驚和發送到島上的一個小隊伍。儘管秘密提供RHIO拉賈提供對荷蘭的托詞,法誇爾,並發出正式抗議拉賈就此事的Java。 來福士的基礎是什麼,成為現代新加坡2月6日宣布,保護島嶼的控制權轉移到東印度公司。做大量的盛況和儀式,並表示目前所有國家,以及馬來和中國居民的語言大聲宣讀正式條約。侯賽因國王是支付5000美元,而當地的天猛公收到每年3,000元,在當時既有大量的資金,相當於幾十萬美元,現在需要的引證]。法誇爾被正式命名為新加坡居民萊佛士被命名為“最崇高的RHIO,Lingin和柔佛州的州長一般的”代理。雖然後的所有權是專門英國,分別給予明確的訂單,以法誇爾,以維持新加坡和交易後成立一個小型的軍事存在是隨著海峽船舶自由通行。發行法誇爾和其餘歐洲的訂單後,萊佛士離開的第二天,1819年2月7日。 [編輯] Achin,並與荷蘭的早期衝突 /危機 萊佛士還計劃在Achin英國,開始在印尼蘇門答臘島北端。只要他離開,RHIO拉賈致函荷蘭,自稱清白和​​英國侵占。荷蘭在馬六甲擔任一次,並責令沒有馬來人可以去新加坡。新加坡萊佛士大膽聲稱創建了一個奇特的地理狀況,檳城那裡雖然很明顯接近距離明智的新加坡,萊佛士,在他明古倫州長一般的能力,在控制。這無疑激怒當局在檳城的地步,他們拒絕任何sepoys發送到新加坡完成的駐軍。來到本月底之前,正式荷蘭投訴和萊佛士試圖安撫指示法誇爾,不會干擾周圍島嶼的政治局勢。儘管多次受到威脅,並認真考慮在Java中由荷蘭總督,荷蘭沒有採取任何軍事行動。 在柔佛和RHIO政治局勢的混亂,也創造了一定的不安和不穩定的兩個 nations.Tengku龍自稱是一個覬覦王位,和,因為在馬來 sultanates演替規律不明確的,條約的簽署當地統治者和歐洲列強之間似乎總是瀕臨無效,特別是如果一個蘇丹是由他的兄弟姐妹或其他覬覦廢黜。 然而,令不確定性和陰謀,萊佛士降落在Achin 3月14日1819年,檳城 begrudging幫助。再次,它似乎多人在權力,但沒有想正式與英國打交道。敵對的氣氛中創建允許萊佛士取消的會議上,他能夠安排,Panglima Polim,一個強大的分區行政的,怕背叛。作為有影響力的商人約翰 - 帕爾默,來福士,和同事專員約翰蒙克頓庫姆斯檳城坐在海上,等待響應,加爾各答辯論是否要加強新加坡或沒有。疏散計劃,但荷蘭人從來沒有採取行動,終於主黑斯廷斯上校納曼提示,檳城的總督,送資金,以加強新加坡。 萊佛士終於能夠說服他的同胞的委員簽署 Jauhar al - Alam的沙阿,Achin統治者,放置一個英國居民以及排他性的貿易條約。 5月31日返回新加坡的時間來福士,眼前的危機,建立殖民地,在檳城和加爾各答造成的已經過去了。屆時,最初的五百村民已經發展成為島內五千年的商人,士兵和管理員。萊佛士是下定決心,既破壞荷蘭在該地區的壟斷地位,並與中國和日本,其中後者他試圖未能達到,而執政的Java創建一個網關貿易。 [編輯]新加坡的第一年 萊佛士在新加坡期間,建立了母語的學校和教堂。他允許傳教士和當地企業的蓬勃發展。某些殖民地方面依然存在:歐洲小鎮迅速建立隔離的人口,一河之隔,運輸道路建成和士兵修建的營地。然而,否則,沒有職責強加和信心,法誇爾會按照他的指示,他再次為明古倫航行於 6月28日。 [編輯]明古連街,再次
來福士仍然是明古倫總督秘書長和返回新加坡定居後,萊佛士開始更多的改革,現在,幾乎是他的後殖民地統治的商標。廢除強迫勞動的時候,他第一次來到,以及他宣布明古倫自由港。貨幣調控,因為他有一個多餘的了,公務員的工作,形成黨委,提醒他在殖民地的運行。然而,明古倫如新加坡自給自足。該地區是貧困和疾病纏身,從委員會的第一次報告反映後,殖民地的狀況非常糟糕。不像有益忽視授予後,新加坡萊佛士,他放慢了歐洲風格的改革,並強調任何可用的土地種植。母語當局在各自地區的權力,只總督。從債務人的系統,而不是舊的奴隸制度,來福士在爪哇,婆羅洲取消,並在明古倫最初的交流。從債務人登記,教育的改革開始把重點放在兒童,而不是全體人口的。萊佛士是尋找到一個長期的明古倫緩慢改革計劃。 與許多其他歐洲殖民者,萊佛士沒有強加給殖民地人民的語言,文化,或其他方面的殖民者。除了保存的文物,動物,和他的殖民地植物,他還允許在他的殖民地,馬來國家,特別是作為重要的宗教自由,以穆斯林為主。然而,基督教學校開始由傳教士在他所有的殖民地。 [編輯]鞏固東部群島 上校檳城納曼 1819年十月的死亡帶來了新的機遇時,萊佛士擴大自己的權力,也包括其他輕微的英國工廠和前哨從蘇門答臘島到科欽中國。他航行到加爾各答和黑斯廷斯主尋求鞏固在東印度群島的英國屬地所有。在他逗留期間,他主張自由貿易和保護民營企業的機會。還討論了教育,並保留了小英的前哨。 柔佛蘇丹國的荷蘭索賠,因此,RHIO,男爵Godert范德Capellen和加爾各答之間的外交往來一直持續到這個時候。英國條約的合法性也再次質疑,但最後,如新加坡以指數速度增長,荷蘭人放棄了他們的要求,在島上,允許繼續作為英國佔有的殖民地。然而,加爾各答後,把壓力,確保沒有在海峽或蘇門答臘島上的英國屬地的總督委任,萊佛士,其健康慢慢生病,回到明古倫。 [編輯]政府的明古連街,1820年至1822年
萊佛士返回明古倫健康欠佳,但他的健康狀況的改善,他繼續他的追求,了解島內,現在他打電話回家。他寫的越軌,需要這樣的行為,以及他們的方法,詳細研究Tapanuli的巴塔克食人族和他們的儀式和法律關於人肉的消費。他還指出,在蘇門答臘島的某些地方的錫克教徒的宗教興起。 1820年初,東姑長期以來一直牢固地確立自己作為英國柔佛州的蘇丹,但在該地區的政治局勢仍然是一個糊塗的一塌糊塗與舊蘇丹死亡和許多新的嘗試獲得官方或攝政。法誇爾是涉及自己在地方政治不佳,萊佛士獲委任為新加坡居民斯格特,取代法誇爾。他的到來後,Travers的殖民地不同種族和文化的一個愉快的自助餐,編號超過 6萬,與新加坡貿易是慢慢超越Java的貿易。 Java中的來福士,收集當地的植物和動物物種的樣本,以及在他的日記中描述他們。他還介紹了其他地方的部落和他們的風俗習慣,特別是他們的宗教和法律。他帶來了在英國統治下的尼亞斯島,並指出其更文明的國家和水稻生產。 然而,糧食生產仍然有些在明古連街的一個問題。萊佛士特別重視對中國農業的方法,並寫了一個唯一的農業社會的法律程序問題,為了彌補這一點。然而,他的雇主,東印度公司,利潤之外沒有其他問題,甚至萊佛士生活像一個國家的紳士,跑了作為一個房地產自己的殖民地,他在自然保護區的支出皺眉。遣送他在加爾各答和倫敦進行了討論,而卡斯爾雷繼續與荷蘭的談判正在進行的外交衝突。 幸運的是,新加坡的問題,它的支持者在眾議院,從而為談判在歐洲,萊佛士在很大程度上仍然閒置在明古倫。唯一的主要問題,當地蘇丹的政治之外,涉及更換法誇爾,他決定,他沒有打算離開他的崗位自願,造成了他和Travers之間的緊張時刻。在新加坡萊佛士“Travers的,以提供分派到印度在今年年底廢止的問題,和法誇爾的請求仍然負責,其生存仍然懷疑許多在印度和倫敦,誰相信,它將是移交到荷蘭或採取由荷蘭卡斯爾雷的談判結束暴力。 然而,法誇爾,激起了更多的麻煩,矛盾的,尤其是與當地英國商人一些,其中他是加爾各答正式譴責,對自我的重要性,並超過白貿易商小違規的過度反應的小事。公共工程,由萊佛士委託進行,但由法誇爾,成為絕大多數昂貴。 個人悲劇也開始來福士。他的長子,利奧波德,在對 1821年7月4日的疫情死亡。長女,夏洛特,也與痢疾年底生病,但它是他最小的兒子,斯坦福馬斯登,誰會先滅亡與疾病,3 1822年1月,夏洛特,按照10天以後。對於相當一部分夫婦的4個月仍一蹶不振。今年將卡斯爾雷自殺和多事的主阿默斯特任命為印度總督,取代了黑斯廷斯。由於萊佛士變得不安和沮喪,他決定到新加坡訪問,然後前往英國家。陪同他將他的妻子索菲亞和他們唯一倖存的孩​​子,埃拉。 [編輯]新加坡(1822年至1823年)


新加坡城市規劃,或俗稱傑克遜計劃 萊佛士很高興,新加坡已在如此短的時間幾年中呈指數增長的事實。殖民地是一個繁華的貿易和活動樞紐。不過,法誇爾的發展工作被視為不理想,萊佛士制定了什麼是現在已知的傑克遜計劃,並根據殖民地的工程師,菲利普傑克遜為首的一個委員會的建議重新規劃城市。 它仍然是一個隔離的計劃,最好的土地給歐洲人,但它被認為是顯著的時間的科學。也正是在鎮,使法誇爾與來福士,現在被認為是法誇爾為駐地的位置不適宜極大地衝突的重新規劃和重建。萊佛士帶著沉重的手直接控制。萊佛士 1823年,制定了解決民眾的代碼,並很快與關於自由貿易的法律。他也很快實行所有土地登記制度,不分所有製性質,土地收回由政府如果仍然未登記的土地。這種行為極大地宣稱英國政府的權力,因為它涵蓋了以前由蘇丹以及擁有的土地。阿警察部隊和裁判官當時成立,在英國的原則。在很短的時間內,萊佛士一個適當的城市變成某種秩序的一個半無政府狀態的買賣差價。 發送更換為法誇爾加爾各答萊佛士幾經努力仍未得到答复。作為萊佛士開始暗示他即將退休,他柔佛英國的保護國,造成從范德Capellen抗議。最後,加爾各答任命約翰克勞福德,遵循了二十多年的來福士,新加坡居民。戈登麥肯齊上尉威廉接手明古倫萊佛士。 1823政府熱線年3月,巧合的是,他被替換了在同一天,他收到來自倫敦的尼亞斯收購的正式譴責。 隨著對他的政治,萊佛士終於轉身回到自然科學。他發表了講話,就在新加坡的馬來學院的開放,積極參與對他多年來在東南亞及本地和歐洲語言的重要性他的觀察。萊佛士對工作親自給 2,000元,東印度公司提供了4,000元的。 1823年,萊佛士起草新加坡的第一部憲法,後一個相當道德的立場,禁止遊戲和奴役。一個在新加坡的多民族人口的呼籲繼續作為憲法的具體規定,並須有基於種族,膚色沒有犯罪。然後,他去工作,起草法律,準確定義“是什麼”構成犯罪。最後,1823政府熱線的感覺,他在新加坡建立的工作已經完成,7月9日,他登上船為家,但在巴達維亞停止不前訪問他的舊居和對手,范德Capellen。一個在明古連街的最後一站,最後一個航次的家,一個慘痛的經歷時的船舶之一措手不及火鼠島,聲稱許多他的圖紙和文件中斷。 1824年英國 - 荷蘭條約“終於塵埃落定,在東印度群島的得分。英國獲得了在北方的統治地位,而整個蘇門達臘成為荷蘭。馬來半島和印度次大陸的都是荷蘭干擾。 萊佛士終於回到了英格蘭 22年8月1824年一年多後,他離開新加坡。他在新加坡的任期最長只有8個月,但他被認為不過,新加坡的創始人。 [編輯]英格蘭和死亡
抵達英國後健康狀況不佳,史丹福萊佛士爵士和夫人萊佛士痊癒,直到9月在Cheltenham,之後,他宴請尊貴的客人,在倫敦和他的家。他還計劃為議會運行,但從來沒有意識到這種野心。他移居倫敦伯納斯街的房子,在十一月底,只是在時間,在前面的EIC法誇爾,誰也抵達倫敦,新加坡董事法院一場口水戰。儘管對萊佛士的幾次嚴重的收費提高,法誇爾最終不能抹黑他,他否認了要恢復到新加坡的機會,但被賦予了軍事推廣。 隨著新加坡問題的解決,萊佛士轉向他的其他的巨大利益 - 植物學和動物學。萊佛士是一個創始人(1825年),倫敦和倫敦動物園的動物學會的第一任總統(當選 1826年4月)。同時,他不僅沒有獲得養老金,但被稱為支付在其主管部門造成的損失超過二十個萬英鎊。萊佛士回答和澄清了他的行動,並轉移到他的國家房地產,Highwood,倫敦北部,但在問題解決之前,他已經太虐待。 米爾山,北倫敦,他的第四十五歲生日的前一天,他死在Highwood眾議院在7月5日1826年中風。他的遺產總額約十萬英鎊,這是支付給本公司,以支付他的未償債務。因為他的反奴隸制的立場,他拒絕在他的教區教堂(聖瑪麗,海登)的副主教,西奧多 - 威廉姆斯,他的家人已在其在牙買加的金錢的奴隸貿易的埋葬。放在一個黃銅片劑,終於在1887年,他的身體的實際下落,直到1914年當它被發現在跳馬。當教會延長他的墓是在20世紀 20年代被納入建設的主體和與題詞平方米的樓面平板標誌著當場。